It's a big-budget market and the stakes are much higher than just the price tags of the products: An incorrect choice may cost your facility in slowed traffic and lost revenues.

In today's container screening market there are 43 multi-million systems, produced by about 10 vendors.

• Gamma Ray Based Systems
• X-Ray Based Systems Linac-X-Ray Based Systems
• Neutron Activation Systems
• Empty Container Screening
• Nuclear Container/Vehicle Threat Detection

Last updated April 2003



Table of contents:

1. Scope.......................................................................................................... 101.1. Coverage ........................................................................................................... 101.2. Technologies..................................................................................................... 111.3. Market............................................................................................................... 121.4. Legislation......................................................................................................... 122. Container/Vehicle Screening - Relevant Legislation and Regulations . 132.1. International Maritime Organization (IMO) Security Proposals.............. 132.2. The Port, Maritime, and Rail Security Act of 2001 (S. 1214) .......................... 142.3. Container Security Initiative (CSI) ................................................................... 142.4. Customs-Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT).............................. 153. Container Screening - Current Technologies.......................................... 173.1. Current Technologies........................................................................................ 173.2. X-Ray systems .................................................................................................. 173.2.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 173.2.2. X-Ray Systems - Purpose ................................................................................ 183.2.3. X-Ray Systems - Principles of operation ........................................................ 193.2.4. Material "Masking" and/or Interruption ........................................................ 263.2.5. Advantages and Weaknesses of X-ray technology .......................................... 333.2.6. X-Ray Screening Systems - State of Development .......................................... 343.2.7. X-Ray Screening Systems - Standards and Guidelines ................................... 353.2.8. X-Ray Screening - Vendors / Products ........................................................... 353.3. Gamma Ray Systems ........................................................................................ 373.3.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 373.3.2. Gamma Ray Systems - Principles of operation............................................... 383.3.3. Comparison between different Gamma Ray Screening Technologies............ 393.3.4. Advantages and Weaknesses of Gamma Ray technology ............................... 403.3.5. Gamma Ray Screening Systems - State of Development ................................ 403.3.6. Gamma Ray Screening Systems - Standards and Guidelines ......................... 403.3.7. Gamma Ray Screening - Vendors / Products................................................ 413.4. Linac X-Ray systems ........................................................................................ 423.4.1. Linac X-Ray - Background.............................................................................. 423.4.2. Linac X-Ray Systems - Principles of operation .............................................. 433.4.3. Linac X-Ray Screening - Detailed Description of Technologies .................... 443.4.4. Dual view Linac Systems ........................................................................ 453.4.5. Advantages and Weaknesses of Linac X-Ray technology ............................... 463.4.6. Linac X-Ray Screening Systems - State of Development ................................ 463.4.7. Linac X-Ray Screening Systems - Standards and Guidelines......................... 463.4.8. Linac X-Ray Screening - Vendors / Products................................................ 473.5. Neutron Activation Systems ............................................................................. 483.5.1. Neutron Activation Background ..................................................................... 483.5.2. Neutron Activation Systems - Principles of operation.................................... 493.5.3. Neutron Activation Screening - Detailed Description of Technologies.......... 503.5.4. Comparison Between Neutron Activation Screening Technologies ............... 513.5.5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fast Neutron Activation Technology....... 523.5.6. Neutron Activation Screening Systems - State of Development...................... 523.5.7. Neutron Activation Screening Systems - Standards and Guidelines .............. 533.5.8. Neutron Activation Screening - Vendors ....................................................... 543.6. Comparison of Current Container Screening Technologies ............................. 543.6.1. Important Notes .............................................................................................. 544. Container Screening - Current Products ................................................. 564.1. Container Screening - Fixed Systems ............................................................... 564.1.1. General Discussion......................................................................................... 564.1.2. Fixed Systems Available Systems - By Technology......................................... 574.1.3. Fixed Systems - Economic Analysis................................................................ 584.1.4. Fixed Systems - Summary of Economic Analysis............................................ 594.1.5. Fixed Systems Vendors ................................................................................... 634.1.6. Terms and Abbreviations ................................................................................ 644.1.7. Fixed Systems Product Comparison ............................................................... 684.2. Container Screening - Relocatable Systems ..................................................... 884.2.1. General discussion.......................................................................................... 884.2.2. Relocatable Systems Available Systems - By Technology............................... 894.2.3. Relocatable Systems Economic Analysis ........................................................ 894.2.4. Relocatable Systems - Summary of Economic Analysis.................................. 914.2.5. Relocatable Systems Vendors / Products........................................................ 944.2.6. Terms and Abbreviations ................................................................................ 944.2.7. Relocatable Systems Product Comparison ................................................... 1004.3. Container Screening - Mobile Systems........................................................... 1184.3.1. General Discussion....................................................................................... 1184.3.2. Mobile Systems Available Systems - By Technology .................................... 1194.3.3. Mobile Systems Economic Analysis.............................................................. 1204.3.4. Mobile Systems - Summary of Economic Analysis ....................................... 1224.3.5. Mobile Systems Vendors / Products.............................................................. 1254.3.6. Terms and Abbreviations .............................................................................. 1254.3.7. Mobile Systems Product Comparison........................................................... 1304.4. Container Screening Products - Detailed Vendor Information....................... 1464.4.1. Container Screening Products - Vendor Contact Information ..................... 1464.4.2. Container Screening - Vendor Profiles......................................................... 1514.4.3. Container Screening - Vendor Outlook....................................................... 1635. Container/Vehicle Screening - Purchasing Considerations.................1645.1. Preliminary Steps ............................................................................................ 1645.2. Gearing Up For Procurement.......................................................................... 1645.3. Selecting the Right Technology...................................................................... 1655.4. Automatic detection ........................................................................................ 1675.5. Site Considerations ......................................................................................... 1675.6. Facility Construction Considerations.............................................................. 1685.7. Manifest Verification ...................................................................................... 1685.8. Impact of screening loads on shipment delays ............................................... 1685.9. Compliance with Initiatives and Treaties ....................................................... 1695.10. Integration with Information Management..................................................... 1695.10.1. Integration Port/ Customs Information ...................................................... 1695.11. Selection of Screening Technology ................................................................ 1705.12. Screening throughput ...................................................................................... 1705.13. Radiation source lifespan and replacement cost ............................................. 1705.14. Radiation safety .............................................................................................. 1715.15. Radiation Commissioning............................................................................... 1715.16. Preventive Maintenance - Container screening.............................................. 1715.17. Uptime............................................................................................................. 1715.18. Threat Image Protection (TIP) ........................................................................ 1715.19. Maintenance Contract ..................................................................................... 1725.20. Training means & methods............................................................................. 1725.21. EU Rules (for EU Ports only) ......................................................................... 172Appendix A - Container Screening Explosives Trace Detection ................ 174Scope ......................................................................................................................... 174Purpose Of Explosives Trace Detectors ..................................................................... 175Current Trace Detection Systems ............................................................................... 175Trace Detection technologies - Advantages and Weaknesses ................................ 175Explosives Trace Detectors - Principles of Operation ............................................... 176Sample collection methods...................................................................................... 177Trace Detection Technologies .................................................................................... 177Ion Mobility Spectroscopy (IMS) ............................................................................ 181ChemiLuminescence (CL) - (also known as Thermal Energy Analyzers, or TEA). 182Electron Capture Detectors (ECD) ........................................................................ 182Surface acoustic wave (SAW) and GC-SAW........................................................... 184Explosives Trace Detectors - Economic Analysis ...................................................... 185Cost of Equipment Ownership ................................................................................ 185Cost of Personnel / Year ......................................................................................... 185Cost of Checkpoint / Year ....................................................................................... 185Cost of Transaction................................................................................................. 185Explosives Trace Detectors State of Development..................................................... 186Standards and Guidelines............................................................................................ 186Explosives Trace Detectors - Vendors....................................................................... 187Explosives Trace Detectors - Current Vendors ..................................................... 187Explosives Trace Detectors - Vendor Information ................................................ 187Explosives Trace Detectors - Vendor Profiles....................................................... 190Explosives Trace Detectors - Vendors Outlook ..................................................... 195Explosives Trace Detectors - Purchasing Considerations .......................................... 196Explosives Trace Detectors - Product Comparison .................................................... 197Explosives Trace Detectors - Comparison Table Specifications Definitions ......... 197Explosives Trace Detectors - Abbreviations: ......................................................... 199Explosives Trace Detection - Product Comparison Tables ................................... 200Trace Detectors Price Comparison Table .............................................................. 205Appendix B - Health and Safety Issues......................................................... 206Safety procedures surrounding the scanning process ................................................. 206Health and safety procedures ...................................................................................... 206Radiation protection.................................................................................................... 206Exhaust fumes in fixed or relocatable scanners.......................................................... 207Gas in containers......................................................................................................... 207Appendix C - Maintenance and Service Agreements .................................. 208Maintenance Contract ................................................................................................. 208Appendix D - U.S. Customs Service CSI Questionnaire.............................. 209FIGURE 1 - 2003 CONTAINER / VEHICLE SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES ............................... 11FIGURE 2 - X-RAY CONTAINER SCREENING SYSTEM (MOBILE) AND CONTROL FACILITY . 17FIGURE 3 - X-RAY SCREENING IN THE CONTEXT OF OVERALLCONTAINER/VEHICLE SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES .......................................... 18FIGURE 4 - X-RAY CONTAINER SCREENING - PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION ........................ 19FIGURE 5 - CONVENTIONAL X-RAY SCREENING IN CONTEXT OFOVERALL TECHNOLOGIES............................................................................. 20FIGURE 6 - CONVENTIONAL X-RAY................................................................................... 21FIGURE 7 - X-RAY SCREENING - BLOCK DIAGRAM ........................................................... 22FIGURE 8 - DUAL ENERGY X-RAY SCREENING IN CONTEXT OF OVERALL TECHNOLOGIES24FIGURE 9 - DUAL ENERGY X-RAY..................................................................................... 25FIGURE 10 - MATERIAL DIFFERENTIATION BY DUAL ENERGY X-RAY............................... 27FIGURE 11 - DUAL ENERGY Z MAP ................................................................................... 27FIGURE 12 - DUAL VIEW X-RAY SCREENING IN CONTEXT OF OVERALL TECHNOLOGIES . 28FIGURE 13 - DUAL VIEW X-RAY - PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION......................................... 29FIGURE 14 - BACKSCATTER X-RAY SCREENING IN CONTEXT OFOVERALL TECHNOLOGIES............................................................................ 31FIGURE 15 - BACKSCATTER X-RAY + PENETRATING X-RAY............................................. 32FIGURE 16 - GAMMA IMAGING CONTAINER SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES .......................... 37FIGURE 17 - GAMMA SOURCE CONTAINER/VEHICLE SCREENING...................................... 38FIGURE 18 - GAMMA RAY SCREENING - BLOCK DIAGRAM ............................................... 39FIGURE 19 - LINAC X-RAY CONTAINER SCREENING TECHNOLOGIES.............................. 42FIGURE 20 - LINAC X-RAY CONTAINER/VEHICLE SCREENING........................................ 43FIGURE 21 - LINAC SCREENING SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM............................................... 44FIGURE 22 - DUAL VIEW LINAC CONTAINER/ VEHICLE IMAGING SYSTEM........................ 45FIGURE 23 - PULSED FAST NEUTRON ACTIVATION CONTAINER/VEHICLE SCREENING...... 49FIGURE 24 - PULSED FAST NEUTRON ACTIVATION CONTAINER/VEHICLE SCREENINGSYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM........................................................................... 51FIGURE 25 - A TYPICAL FIXED SITE CONTAINER SCREENING CHECKPOINT ...................... 56FIGURE 26 - A TYPICAL RELOCATABLE SCREENING SITE CHECKPOINT ............................ 88FIGURE 27 - A TYPICAL MOBILE SCREENING SYSTEM .................................................... 118FIGURE 28 - AN ARBITRARY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FRACTION OF SCREENEDCONTAINERS AND SHIP DEPARTURE DELAYS ............................................. 169FIGURE 29 - TRACE DETECTION GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ............................. 176FIGURE 30 - THE AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION OF VARIOUS “OPEN CAN” EXPLOSIVES. . 179FIGURE 31 - TYPICAL SENSITIVITY OF VARIOUS EXPLOSIVE TRACE DETECTIONTECHNOLOGIES.......................................................................................... 180FIGURE 32 - ION MOBILITY SPECTROSCOPY (IMS).......................................................... 181FIGURE 33 - CHEMILUMINESCENCE (CL) ........................................................................ 182FIGURE 34 - ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTORS (ECD)..................................................... 183FIGURE 35 - SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE (SAW) AND GC-SAW...................................... 184List of TablesTABLE 1 - X-RAY DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES - APPLICABILITY TO CONTAINER AND..... 20TABLE 2 - CONVENTIONAL X-RAY - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ..................... 23TABLE 3 - CONVENTIONAL X-RAY VENDORS / SYSTEMS............................................... 23TABLE 4 - DUAL ENERGY VENDORS / SYSTEMS .............................................................. 25TABLE 5 - EXPLOSIVES, DRUGS, AND COMMON X-RAY "INTERRUPTION" MATERIALS ... 26TABLE 6 - DUAL ENERGY X-RAY ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.......................... 28TABLE 7 - DUAL VIEW VENDORS / SYSTEMS................................................................... 30TABLE 8 - DUAL VIEW X-RAY ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES .............................. 30TABLE 9 - BACKSCATTER & X-RAY VENDORS / SYSTEMS............................................. 33TABLE 10 - X-RAY SCREENING SYSTEMS - VENDORS AND PRODUCTS.............................. 36TABLE 11 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GAMMA RAY TECHNOLOGIES.......... 40TABLE 12 - GAMMA TECHNOLOGY: CONTAINER / VEHICLE SCREENINGVENDORS / SYSTEMS .................................................................................... 41TABLE 13 - ADVANTAGES AND WEAKNESSES OF LINAC X-RAY TECHNOLOGY................. 46TABLE 14 - LINAC TECHNOLOGY: CONTAINER / VEHICLE SCREENINGVENDORS / SYSTEMS .................................................................................... 47TABLE 15 - NEUTRON ACTIVATION TECHNOLOGIES - COMPARISON ................................. 52TABLE 16 - FAST NEUTRON ACTIVATION TECHNOLOGY - ADVANTAGES ANDDISADVANTAGES .......................................................................................... 52TABLE 17 - PULSED FAST NEUTRON ANALYSIS TECHNOLOGY: CONTAINER / VEHICLESCREENING VENDORS / SYSTEMS .................................................................. 54TABLE 18 - CAR BOMB SCREENING - VENDORS/SYSTEMS ................................................ 54TABLE 19 - ALL IN ONE GLANCE - COMPARISON BETWEEN CONTAINER SCREENINGTECHNOLOGIES.............................................................................................. 55TABLE 20 - FIXED SCREENING SYSTEMS - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES .............. 57TABLE 21 - FIXED SCREENING SYSTEMS - VENDORS AND PRODUCTS - BY TECHNOLOGY 57TABLE 22 - SUMMARY OF FIXED SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS A FACILITY ..... 59TABLE 23 - SUMMARY OF FIXED SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS B FACILITY...... 61TABLE 24 - SUMMARY OF FIXED SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS C FACILITY...... 62TABLE 25 - FIXED SCREENING SYSTEMS - VENDORS AND PRODUCTS ............................... 63TABLE 26 - RELOCATABLE CONTAINER SCREENING SYSTEMS - BY TECHNOLOGY ........... 89TABLE 27 - SUMMARY OF RELOCATABLE SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS AFACILITY....................................................................................................... 92TABLE 28 - SUMMARY OF RELOCATABLE SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS BFACILITY....................................................................................................... 93TABLE 29 - SUMMARY OF FIXED SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS C FACILITY...... 93TABLE 30 - RELOCATABLE SCREENING SYSTEMS - VENDORS AND PRODUCTS.................. 94TABLE 31 - MOBILE CONTAINER SCREENING SYSTEMS - BY TECHNOLOGY.................... 119TABLE 32 - SUMMARY OF MOBILE SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS A FACILITY 122TABLE 33 - SUMMARY OF MOBILE SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS B FACILITY 123TABLE 34 - SUMMARY OF MOBILE SYSTEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS - CLASS C FACILITY 124TABLE 35 - MOBILE SCREENING SYSTEMS - VENDORS AND PRODUCTS .......................... 125TABLE 36 - COST OF SCREENING TRANSACTIONS V(S) SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY ANDCHECKPOINT SCREENING DEMAND. ............................................................. 166TABLE 37 - TRACE DETECTION SYSTEMS - VENDOR/PRODUCT QUICKREFERENCE TABLE .................................................................................... 175TABLE 38 - TRACE DETECTION - PROS AND CONS........................................................... 176TABLE 39 - TRACE EXPLOSIVE-DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES............................................ 178TABLE 40 - EXPLOSIVES TRACE DETECTION - VENDORS AND PRODUCTS TABLE............ 200TABLE 41 - TRACE DETECTION SYSTEMS - PRODUCT PRICING COMPARISON TABLE ...... 205